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  • Open Access

    REVIEW

    A Literature Review on Sustainability of Bio-Based and Biodegradable Plastics: Challenges and Opportunities

    Taofeeq D. Moshood, Gusman Nawanir, Fatimah Mahmud*, Fazeeda Mohamad, Mohd Hanafiah Ahmad, Airin AbdulGhani

    Energy Engineering, Vol.119, No.4, pp. 1611-1647, 2022, DOI:10.32604/ee.2022.019028

    Abstract This study examines the literature on bio-based and biodegradable plastics published between 2000 and 2021 and provides insights and research suggestions for the future. The study gathers data from the Scopus and ISI Web of Science databases, then picks 1042 publications objectively and analyses their metadata. Furthermore, 144 papers from the Web of Science are analysed to present insights and classifications of the literature based on content analyses, including assessment/evaluation of the sustainability of bio-based and biodegradable Plastics, sustainability of biodegradable Plastics, and factors driving the uptake of biodegradable plastics. The study finds that most research on bio-based and biodegradable… More >

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    Phosphorylated Salicylic Acid as Flame Retardant in Epoxy Resins and Composites

    Lara Greiner1,*, Philipp Kukla2, Sebastian Eibl1, Manfred Döring3

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.10, No.7, pp. 1931-1950, 2022, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2022.019548

    Abstract A novel, versatile flame retardant substructure based on phosphorylated salicylic acid (SCP) is described and used in the synthesis of new flame retardants for HexFlow® RTM6, a high-performance epoxy resin used in resin transfer molding processes as composite matrix. The starting material salicylic acid can be obtained from natural sources. SCP as reactive phosphorus chloride is converted with a novolak, a novolak containing 9, 10-dihydro-9- oxa-10-phospha-phenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) substituents or DOPO-hydroquinone to flame retardants with sufficient thermal stability and high char yield. Additionally, these flame retardants are soluble in the resin as well as react into the epoxy network. The determined… More >

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    A New DOPO-Eugenol Adduct as an Effective Flame Retardant for Epoxy Thermosets with Improved Mechanical Properties

    Daqin Zhang1,2, Chufeng Yang3, Huayang Ran1,2, Juanli Wang1,2,*, Jintao Wan1,2,*, Yuhu Li1,2, Pujun Jin1,2, Daodao Hu1,2

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.10, No.7, pp. 1797-1811, 2022, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2022.018754

    Abstract The development of efficient green flame retardants is an important way to realize more sustainable epoxy thermosets and downstream materials. In this work, a monoepoxide is synthesized through O-glycidylation of eugenol, and then reacted with DOPO (9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphophenanthrene-10-oxide) to obtain a new bio-based flame retardant, DOPO-GE. DOPO-GE is blended with a bisphenol A epoxy prepolymer exhibiting good compatibility and DDS (4,4′-diaminodiphenylsulfone) is used as the curing agent to afford epoxy thermosets. Although DOPO-GE leads to the reduced glass transition temperature of the thermosets, the storage modulus increases considerably. The DOPO-GE-modified thermosets exhibit the high thermal stability with the onset thermal decomposition… More >

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    Properties of Different Chemically Treated Woven Hemp Fabric Reinforced Bio-Composites

    Arunjunai Raj Mahendran*, Günter Wuzella, Stefan Pichler, Herfried Lammer

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.10, No.6, pp. 1505-1516, 2022, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2022.017835

    Abstract The objective of this work is to carry out the chemical treatment for the hemp fabrics in a closed vacuum system and to prepare bio-based composites using treated hemp fabrics. The change in surface tension of the treated fabrics was measured using contact angle measurement and the wetting behavior using a tensiometer. Bio-based composites were fabricated using bio-based epoxy resin and different chemically treated fabrics. The flexural strength and dynamic water absorption behavior of the composites were characterized. The acetylated fabrics showed very good wetting behavior, and the contact angle values were marginally low compared to other treatment techniques. The… More > Graphic Abstract

    Properties of Different Chemically Treated Woven Hemp Fabric Reinforced Bio-Composites

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    A Vanillin-Derived, DOPO-Contained Bisphenol as a Reactive Flame Retardant for High-Performance Epoxy Thermosets

    Li Wang1,2,#, Rongbai Tong3,#, Juanli Wang1,2,*, Jintao Wan1,2,*, Yuhu Li1,2, Pujun Jin1,2, Daodao Hu1,2

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.10, No.5, pp. 1349-1364, 2022, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2022.019372

    Abstract Quest for bio-based halogen-free green flame retardant has attracted many concerns in recent years. Herein a reactive functional flame retardant containing phosphorus VDP is synthesized from vanillin, 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphophene-10-oxide (DOPO) and phenol via a facile way. VDP is characterized with 1H NMR, 31P NMR, FTIR and Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry, and used as a new reactive flame retardant for bisphenol epoxy thermosets. Thermogravimetry analysis shows that when the VDP loading is only 0.5P% (based on phosphorus content), the residue increases from 14.2% to 21.1% at 750°C in N2 compare with neat DGEBA. Correspondingly, the limit oxygen index increased to 29.6%,… More >

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    Bio-Based Trivalent Phytate: A Novel Strategy for Enhancing Fire Performance of Rigid Polyurethane Foam Composites

    Bing Zhang1, Sujie Yang1, Mengru Liu1, Panyue Wen2, Xiuyu Liu1, Gang Tang1,*, Xiangrong Xu3,4,*

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.10, No.5, pp. 1201-1220, 2022, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2022.018047

    Abstract Biomass phytic acid has potential flame retardant value as the main form of phosphorus in plant seeds. In this study, phytate-based flame retardants aluminum phytate (PA-Al) and iron phytate (PA-Fe) were synthesized and characterized. Subsequently, they were introduced into rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) as flame retardants by one-step water-blown method. The results indicated that RPUF/PA-Fe30 exhibited the highest char residue of 22.1 wt%, significantly higher than 12.4 wt% of RPUF. Cone calorimetry analysis showed that the total heat release (THR) of RPUF/PA-Al30 decreased by 17.0% and total smoke release (TSR) decreased by 22.0% compared with pure RPUF, which were the lowest, demonstrating… More > Graphic Abstract

    Bio-Based Trivalent Phytate: A Novel Strategy for Enhancing Fire Performance of Rigid Polyurethane Foam Composites

  • Open Access

    REVIEW

    Recent Advances in Flame Retardant Bio-Based Benzoxazine Resins

    Hongliang Ding, Xin Wang*, Lei Song, Yuan Hu

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.10, No.4, pp. 871-895, 2022, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2022.018150

    Abstract Benzoxazines have attracted wide attention from academics all over the world because of their unique properties. However, most of the production and preparation of benzoxazine resins depends on petroleum resources now, especially bisphenol A-based benzoxazine. Therefore, owing to the environmental impacts, the development of bio-based benzoxazines is gaining more and more interest to substitute petroleum-based benzoxazines. Similar to petroleum-based benzoxazines, most of bio-based benzoxazines suffer from flammability. Thus, it is necessary to endow bio-based benzoxazines with outstanding flame retardancy. The purpose of this review is to summarize the latest advance in flame retardant bio-based benzoxazines. First, three methods of the… More > Graphic Abstract

    Recent Advances in Flame Retardant Bio-Based Benzoxazine Resins

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    The Spatial and Electronic Effects of Substituent Groups on the Thermal Curing of Bio-Based Benzoxazines

    Rumeng Li1, Guozhu Zhan2, Qi Ma1, Yunhe Yang1, Xiaoyun Liu1,*, Yitong Zhang1, Qixin Zhuang1

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.9, No.12, pp. 2093-2117, 2021, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2021.015827

    Abstract To explore the influence of substituent groups on thermally induced curing, eight new bio-based benzoxazines containing different substituent groups with different electron negativity and volumes were synthesized. The thermal curing of these bio-based benzoxazines was studied in detail. Combined with the curing reaction kinetics, simulation and calculation of Highest Occupied Molecular and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular values, the spatial and electronic effects of different substituent groups on the curing of benzoxazine was explored. It was found that when the substituent was located at the position directly connected to the N atom, the steric hindrance effect of the group was dominant. When… More > Graphic Abstract

    The Spatial and Electronic Effects of Substituent Groups on the Thermal Curing of Bio-Based Benzoxazines

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    Preparation and Properties of Bio-Based Flame Retardant L-APP/Poly(L-lactic acid) Composites

    Qionglin Luo1, Mingliang Wang2, Hui Zhang1, Yuejun Ouyang1, Hongwei Lin1, You Shu1,*, Shengpei Su1,2,*

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.9, No.12, pp. 2067-2076, 2021, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2021.016255

    Abstract Poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) is a thermoplastic material with complete degradability, high biocompatibility and excellent mechanical properties. It can replace petroleum-based polymers are currently being used in the fields of packaging, agriculture, textiles, medical and so on. However, PLLA’s extremely flammability greatly limits its wider application. An bio-based flame retardant L-APP/PLLA composites was prepared by melt blending of the L-APP and PLLA. The morphology, impact properties, thermal properties and flame retardant properties of composites were investigated by field emission scanning electron microscope (SEM), impact tester, differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA), limiting oxygen indexer (LOI) and horizontalvertical burning tester. The… More > Graphic Abstract

    Preparation and Properties of Bio-Based Flame Retardant L-APP/Poly(L-lactic acid) Composites

  • Open Access

    ARTICLE

    Soy Protein Isolate Non-Isocyanates Polyurethanes (NIPU) Wood Adhesives

    Xinyi Chen1,2, Antonio Pizzi1,*, Xuedong Xi1,2, Xiaojian Zhou2, Emmanuel Fredon1, Christine Gerardin3

    Journal of Renewable Materials, Vol.9, No.6, pp. 1045-1057, 2021, DOI:10.32604/jrm.2021.015066

    Abstract Soy-protein isolate (SPI) was used to prepare non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) thermosetting adhesives for wood panels by reacting it with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and hexamethylene diamine. Both linear as well as branched oligomers were obtained and identified, indicating how such oligomer structures could further cross-link to form a hardened network. Unusual structures were observed, namely carbamic acid-derived urethane linkages coupled with lactam structures. The curing of the adhesive was followed by thermomechanical analysis (TMA). It appeared to follow a two stages process: First, at a lower temperature (maximum 130°C), the growth of linear oligomers occurred, finally forming a physically entangled network.… More >

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