Evaluating the Effectiveness of Graph Convolutional Network for Detection of Healthcare Polypharmacy Side Effects

1  Introduction

Polypharmacy, the concurrent use of multiple medications, is a rapidly growing concern within the healthcare industry due to the aging population and the rise of chronic diseases. The aging population and the rising number of chronic illnesses make polypharmacy, the co-use of numerous drugs, a serious challenge in healthcare. Although polypharmacy may be used correctly in the therapy of multimorbidity, it also raises the risk of unanticipated negative medication interactions and adverse drug reactions (ADRs). These difficulties might result in a greater rate of persons referred to hospitals, higher prices in healthcare, and patients having a worse quality of life. This has underlined the need for accurate, predictive techniques to be developed to forecast and alleviate these side effects. In so doing, enhancing patient safety and health care outcomes. While using multiple medications to treat a patient might be helpful, it also raises the possibility of harmful drug responses and interactions [1,2]. Hospitalization rates, quality of life, and healthcare system costs might all rise due to these issues. As a result, there is a pressing need for reliable strategies to foresee and forestall these adverse reactions, enhancing patient security and healthcare results [3].

The purpose of this research is to increase the accuracy and interpretability in the prediction of polypharmacy side effects via a Graph Convolutional Network (GCN)-based model. The framework leverages pharmacological information from electronic health records (EHR) to identify harmful drug-drug interactions. This aims not only to boost accuracy prediction from the study itself but also to address the pressing demand for explainability about AI in healthcare.

Many different algorithms and methods have been developed in recent years to use machine learning and artificial intelligence to anticipate adverse drug reactions and drug interactions [4]. Graph-based machine learning algorithms have become increasingly popular because of their success in modeling complex interactions between items as graphs. In many fields, including social network research, molecular biology, and natural language processing, graph convolutional networks (GCNs) have proven to be highly effective [5]. Highlighting their benefits, shortcomings, and possibilities for future research, this work gives a detailed analysis of the use of GCNs to identify polypharmacy side effects.

Even though several prior studies are using different AI-based approaches, notably traditional machine learning, they generally model ADRs or DDIs well [5], although most of these methods are relatively efficient in identifying active molecules but inefficient in effectively modeling complex drug relationships between drugs. In addition, most existing models, however predictive, act as “black boxes,” meaning that healthcare professionals utilizing the model must trust the algorithm without a method to evaluate or explain why it makes certain judgments. The usage of interpretable models that utilize the graph structure is vital to obtain actionable clinical decision intelligence from the model [6]. The quality and accessibility of data connected to drugs are major aspects of the effectiveness of GCNs. The model’s capacity to acquire meaningful representations and make accurate predictions can be severely impaired by incomplete, inconsistent, or stale data. It is also possible that the model was trained with stale or irrelevant data, as many existing drug databases are not constantly updated [6].

However, a plethora of problems hinder earlier studies in forecasting drug-drug interactions. Quality and availability of data on drugs are vital for the efficacy of operational models [7]. The lack of annotated data on polypharmacy-related adverse effects is another issue in this realm. Supervised learning approaches, such as GCNs, rely on labeled data for training, which may not be readily available for all drug combinations. This limitation can be partially addressed by leveraging semi-supervised or unsupervised learning techniques. However, the performance of such models is still dependent on the availability of high-quality data. GCNs can be computationally expensive, particularly when dealing with large-scale drug interaction networks [7]. The availability of incomplete or outdated data, as is the case with drug databases, is restricting the ability of machine learning engines to provide reliable results. Furthermore, present models cannot scale because of the computing needs of training on vast drug interaction networks, made up of hundreds of medicines and kinds of interactions [8]. Also, a lot of the models above are supervised and need significant quantities of labeled data, which may not be accessible for all medication combinations. The complexity of GCNs is primarily driven by the number of graph nodes, edges, and layers in the model. As the size of the drug interaction network increases, the computational resources and time required for training and inference grow exponentially, posing significant challenges to scalability. Several techniques have been proposed to address the scalability issues in GCNs, such as graph sampling, graph coarsening, and distributed training. However, these methods often involve trade-offs between computational efficiency and model performance. Future research should explore novel strategies for improving the scalability of GCNs without compromising their predictive capabilities [8].

Brain-GCN-Net is a specialized Graph Convolutional Network model designed for analyzing brain network data, which captures complex connectivity patterns crucial for understanding neurological functions and disorders [9]. By leveraging the graph structure of brain networks, Brain-GCN-Net aids in identifying biomarkers for cognitive functions and detecting neurological disorders. This approach underscores the adaptability of GCNs to domain-specific data, such as neuroimaging, where relationships among networked nodes (brain regions) are key. Integrating Brain-GCN-Net into GCN research highlights the model’s potential in advancing neuroscience and personalized healthcare through graph-based deep learning methods. Artificial intelligence (AI) applications in drug detection, specifically ADR prediction and DDI screening: examining the Praml template system [9]. While extremely advanced, most present AI-based models are constructed using classic machine learning approaches that do not have the potential to capture complicated, non-linear drug interactions. Instead, in this experiment with a tighter perspective of credit assignment, we strengthened the comprehension and interpretation of drug interrelations by applying Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) to graph-structured data.

Interpretability and explainability are essential aspects of any predictive model, particularly in healthcare applications where understanding the underlying mechanisms behind predictions is crucial for decision-making. However, GCNs, like many other deep learning models, are often criticized for being “black-box” models, meaning their predictions can be difficult to interpret and explain. Recent research efforts have been directed towards developing techniques for improving the interpretability and explainability of GCNs [10]. For instance, attention mechanisms, layer-wise relevance propagation, and graph-based explanation methods have been proposed to shed light on the model’s decision-making process. Further research is needed to develop more transparent and explainable GCN models that provide actionable insights for clinicians and researchers. This paper presents several case studies demonstrating the utility of GCNs for predicting polypharmacy side effects in various healthcare settings. These examples illustrate how GCNs can be used to solve a wide range of problems associated with polypharmacy. An important field of study that can profit from GCNs is drug repurposing or the development of novel therapeutic applications for currently available medications [11,12]. GCNs can anticipate novel drug-disease connections and aid in identifying possible candidates for medication repurposing by utilizing the extensive information embodied in drug interaction networks. GCNs can be used to formulate optimal medication combinations to reduce unwanted effects while increasing therapeutic value. GCNs can discover synergistic medication pairings and provide ideal dosage regimes to minimize the likelihood of adverse responses by modeling the complicated connections between medicines and their targets [13].

Another future use for GCNs is in personalized medicine, which involves adapting medical care to each patient’s unique traits. GCNs can reduce the risk of adverse medication reactions by identifying the best treatment options for each patient based on their unique characteristics, such as their genetic makeup [14].

1.1 Polypharmacy and Its Consequences

Multiple causes, including the rise of chronic diseases, the aging of populations, and the introduction of new pharmaceuticals, contribute to the rise of polypharmacy. Polypharmacy is common in managing multiple or overlapping medical diseases. However, it does bring up some concerns that need to be addressed. Taking multiple medications simultaneously raises the risk of adverse drug reactions and interactions, which can have serious repercussions for patients [15].

The severity of adverse drug reactions and drug discontinuation effects (DDIs) might vary widely. Dizziness, upset stomach, and mental fogginess are all common negative reactions. Organ failure, increased morbidity, and mortality are all possible outcomes of ADRs and DDIs. Hospitalizations, additional treatments, and lost work time are just some of the ways that complications can drive up healthcare expenses [16]. Patients’ usage of many drugs at once, or polypharmacy, is becoming increasingly common in today’s healthcare system. The aging population, the increase in the prevalence of chronic diseases, and the development of more effective pharmaceutical treatments all play a role in this development. Although polypharmacy is often necessary for the effective management of complicated health conditions and the enhancement of patient outcomes, it presents several difficulties and repercussions that must be carefully considered. This article explores polypharmacy from every angle, exploring its causes, effects, and what it means for doctors and patients [17].

Complex links between medications and their interactions can be represented by graph-structured data, which GCNs can easily learn from and share. Recent research into using GCNs for ADR and DDI detection in poly-medicine has yielded encouraging findings. Fig. 1 illustrates how the likelihood of adverse effects rises with the number of medications a person takes, age, and preexisting diseases.

Figure 1: The severity of adverse effects, from mild (dizziness, nausea) to severe (organ failure), increases with the number of medications, age, and preexisting conditions

1.1.1 Prevalence of Polypharmacy

In recent years, the incidence of polypharmacy across various patient demographics and medical settings has increased. Several factors have contributed to this growth, including an aging population and the rise of chronic diseases that sometimes necessitate a combination of treatments. Since clinicians now have access to a wider variety of pharmaceuticals, the development and availability of new treatments have also led to the growth in polypharmacy [18]. Up to forty percent of the elderly population, according to some statistics, may engage in polypharmacy, meaning that they take five or more prescriptions regularly. Several drugs are common among the elderly because of the higher prevalence of chronic illnesses and multimorbidity among this population.

1.1.2 Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) and Drug-Drug Interactions (DDIs)

The increased possibility of ADRs and DDIs is a major cause for concern when many medications are being taken simultaneously. Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) occur when the presence of another drug alters the effects of one drug. In contrast, adverse drug reactions (ADRs) refer to any unanticipated, undesirable impact of a medicine that occurs at normal levels. The likelihood of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and drug-drug interactions (DDIs), which can cause various difficulties and put patients at risk, rises in proportion to the number of medications being taken simultaneously. There is a broad spectrum of symptoms and severity associated with ADRs and DDIs, from slight discomfort to potentially fatal illnesses [19,20]. Common negative reactions include lightheadedness, nausea, stomach pain, brain fog, and tiredness. Organ failure, increased morbidity, and even death can result from ADRs and DDIs in the most extreme of circumstances [21]. In addition, the greater chance of multimorbidity and polypharmacy, as well as age-related changes in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, all contribute to an increased risk of ADRs and DDIs in older people.

1.1.3 Medication Non-Adherence

Medication non-adherence, or when patients stop taking their prescriptions as directed, is a potential side effect of polypharmacy. The difficulty of following prescribed drug schedules, the stress of juggling many drugs, and the worry of experiencing unwanted side effects can all contribute to this phenomenon. Patient’s quality of life, healthcare costs, and treatment outcomes can all suffer if they do not take their medications as prescribed.

1.1.4 Inappropriate Prescribing

Inappropriate prescription, which occurs when medications are prescribed without a clear clinical indication, in improper doses, or for an unduly lengthy time, is another possible outcome of polypharmacy [22]. Over-reliance on pharmacotherapy, insufficient monitoring of patient medication use, and a lack of information about the potential for drug interactions all contribute to inappropriate prescribing. Aside from raising healthcare expenses, this can also increase the likelihood of adverse drug reactions and interactions.

1.1.5 Increased Healthcare Utilization and Costs

There are several ways in which polypharmacy leads to rising healthcare costs and utilization. Increased trips to emergency rooms, lengths of stay in hospitals, and the need for additional medical treatments may all result from ADRs and DDIs brought on by polypharmacy. Patients with many health problems or those at high risk of polypharmacy-related consequences should have their prescription schedules reviewed routinely by their healthcare providers. Regularly reviewing a patient’s prescriptions can reduce the likelihood of adverse drug reactions and drug interactions (ADRs and DDIs). Healthcare providers might use this time to talk to patients about the importance of taking their drugs as prescribed [23].

In particular, patients should be encouraged to take an active role in managing their medications. To enhance patient empowerment, a healthcare provider can explain the purpose, dose, administration, and possible side effects of any prescription. To better communicate with their doctors and lower their risk of polypharmacy-related issues, patients should be urged to keep an up-to-date list of all their prescriptions and supplements. Healthcare providers from different specialties, such as physicians, pharmacists, nurses, and allied health professionals, must work together to manage polypharmacy [24] effectively. Medication regimens may be optimized, drug interactions can be detected, and patients can receive adequate education and support if healthcare professionals work together. Potential polypharmacy-related issues can be identified and avoided with clinical decision support tools like electronic health records, integrated drug interaction alerts, and computerized provider order input systems. These technologies can aid medical practitioners in reducing the risk of adverse drug reactions and interactions by giving up-to-the-minute information on drug interactions and contraindications.

1.2 The Need for Predictive Models

Early detection and prevention of ADRs and DDIs need to enhance patient safety and healthcare outcomes due to the risks and repercussions associated with polypharmacy. For doctors to make educated judgments about medication treatment, precise and efficient predictive models are needed to anticipate probable side effects before they emerge [25].

Traditional statistical methods, machine learning algorithms, and network-based approaches are only a few of the methodologies presented for forecasting ADRs and DDIs. However, problems arise when attempting to process drug-related data due to its high dimensionality, sparsity, and complexity. Furthermore, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms behind ADRs and DDIs, yet many existing models do not reflect the complicated connections between different medicines and their biological targets. A predictive model is a statistical model constructed from existing data and then used to generate forecasts about the future. To forecast future behavior, these models employ intricate algorithms first to find patterns and connections within the data. As can be seen in Fig. 2, predictive models are employed in domains as diverse as economics, marketing, medicine, and engineering. They can be used to anticipate the actions of consumers, the outcomes of businesses, the health of populations, and even the occurrence of natural disasters.

Figure 2: Demonstrates how to build up a graph convolutional network. Where a dataset is used as input, modalities are denoted by the letters X. The expected label for the test nodes is Y

The graph-structured data is fed into a GCN’s input layer as a matrix of features. Features may include data about individual nodes, connections, and the network’s topology. Typically, the features undergo a linear transformation at the input layer before being passed on to the hidden layer. Most of a GCN’s learning occurs in its hidden layer [26,27]. To learn representations of nodes and edges in the network, the hidden layer is made up of many convolutional layers. These filters are taught during training via backpropagation, and their purpose is to detect patterns and connections in the underlying graph structure. Predictions are made based on the node and edge representations produced by the hidden layer.

The output layer of a GCN takes the learned node and edge representations from the hidden layer and uses them to make predictions about the graph-structured data. The output layer can take several different forms depending on the specific application of the GCN. For example, in the case of ADR detection, the output layer may consist of a binary classification layer that predicts whether a given drug combination is likely to result in an adverse drug reaction [28].

A neural network has an input, an output, and one or many hidden layers. An example illustrates how the different layers are connected. A neural network can be seen as a parameterized function f^ (X, W) where X and W represent the input data and the weights, respectively. During the training process, a neural network adjusts the numerical value of the weights based on a two-step process: forward propagation and backward propagation. The forward propagation step is in charge of obtaining predicted outputs Y^ based on inputs X, forward propagating them through the hidden layers until the output layer applies the nonlinear function of each unit. The desired output is denoted as Y.

Modifying the weights minimizes the error between the desired and predicted outputs during the backpropagation step. Using a loss function such that Loss=(Y^)2=(Yf^(X,W))2, it calculates the error and back propagates it from the output layer through the hidden layers until the input layer while modifying the corresponding weights. The weights are then updated using the partial derivative of the loss function concerning the weights.

GCNs, which combine deep learning and graph theory strengths, have demonstrated early success in several contexts. GCNs can be utilized to foretell the efficacy and safety of potential medication combinations throughout the drug discovery process. GCNs can analyze large amounts of gene expression data to find diagnostic indicators for various cancers. In addition to their use in social network analysis, recommendation systems, and NLP, GCNs have found use in other domains, as shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3: Structure of a GCN model showing input, hidden, and output layers, highlighting applications in drug discovery and cancer detection

1.2.1 Better Decision-Making

One of the primary reasons for using predictive models is to improve decision-making. Predictive models can provide valuable insights by utilizing previous data to uncover patterns and trends that would otherwise be difficult to notice. This paves the way for officials to make choices based on hard evidence rather than speculation.

1.2.2 Improved Efficiency

Automation, another big-time saver, is facilitated by predictive models. By using a predictive model, for instance, fraudulent transactions can be automatically identified without requiring human intervention, saving valuable time and money.

1.2.3 Enhanced Customer Experience

It is also possible to utilize predictive models to improve interactions with customers. Companies may increase customer satisfaction and loyalty by anticipating their customers’ requirements and responding with products and services uniquely suited to them.

1.2.4 Risk Management

The application of predictive models allows for the early detection and elimination of potential risks. Customers at high risk of leaving the firm can be identified using a predictive model so that the business can take preventative action.

1.2.5 Competitive Advantage

Finally, predictive models can provide a competitive advantage by allowing companies to identify opportunities and make strategic decisions that give them an edge over their competitors. By using predictive models to forecast market trends and customer behavior, companies can stay ahead of the curve and position themselves for success.

1.3 Aim of the Study

This study aims to tackle the double problem of improving the accuracy and interpretability of predicting side effects in polypharmacy. More precisely, it aims to provide a new method that merges the capabilities of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) with knowledge graph analysis to enhance the accuracy of predictions, while guaranteeing that the model’s forecasts are understandable and clear. By leveraging the benefits of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) over traditional Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs), the goal is to improve the interpretability of predictions in polypharmacy.

2  Literature Review

Polypharmacy, or using many drugs simultaneously, is rising, especially among the elderly. Although these drugs have the potential to cure a wide variety of chronic illnesses, they also pose risks of ADRs and DDIs [29]. The safety and effectiveness of polymedicine depend on the early identification of these adverse effects and interactions [30]. Manual evaluation of electronic health records (EHR) or clinical trial data is typically used to discover ADRs and DDIs, although this process can be time-consuming and error-prone. Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) are one example of a machine learning technique promising to address this issue. Graph-based data, such as drug-interaction networks, are best processed by GCNs, a special neural network. Like Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) transport information between pixels in a picture, a GCN uses the graph structure to transfer information between nodes [31]. Graph convolutional networks (GCNs) learn to represent nodes in a graph by combining data from neighboring nodes and edges. Several recent studies have investigated the feasibility of using GCNs to detect ADR and DDI, with encouraging outcomes. This literature review aims to provide a snapshot of the current state of research on applying GCNs to the detection of ADR and DDI by summarising and analyzing the relevant publications.

2.1 Detection of Adverse Drug Reactions with GCNs

Several researchers have looked into the possibility of using GCNs to detect adverse drug responses (ADRs), which can happen even when pharmaceuticals are used exactly as prescribed. Older people, more prone to take many drugs, are particularly vulnerable to ADRs. An adverse drug event network was employed for ADR detection in a GCN-based technique by Yao et al. [32]. The network was built with information from the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS), which stores information on drug-related side effects. Using a semi-supervised method, the GCN was trained on the network to predict the likelihood of other ADRs based on the graph topology. The model was trained using a small batch of labeled ADRs. The area under the curve (AUC) of 0.911 on a held-out test set demonstrated that the GCN-based strategy performed better than conventional machine learning methods for ADR identification. In addition, the study proved that the GCN was interpretable by showing that the model could single out pivotal nodes in the graph that were linked to particular ADRs. Bang et al. employed an EHR-based ADR detection system powered by a multi-relational GCN [33]. The GCN was taught using a graph built from EHR drug and diagnosis codes, with edges signifying co-prescribing and co-occurrence. A small subset of annotated ADRs was used to train the model, and then the model was applied to estimate the likelihood of other annotated ADRs using the graph structure. The GCN-based algorithm achieved an AUC of 0.895 on a held-out test set, which beat conventional machine learning approaches to ADR detection. In addition, the study proved that the GCN was interpretable by showing that the model could single out pivotal nodes in the graph that were linked to particular ADRs.

2.2 GCN-Based DDI Detection Using Drug Interaction Network

A GCN-based technique was utilized to identify DDIs in a drug interaction network in a study by Carletti et al. [34]. The network was built using knowledge of drug interactions and drug targets. A small number of labeled DDIs were employed to train the GCN on the network, and then the GCN was used to forecast the likelihood of other DDIs based on the graph structure. With an AUC of 0.929 on a held-out test set, the results demonstrated that the GCN-based strategy outperformed conventional machine learning methods for DDI identification. The model’s capacity to single out crucial nodes in the GCN and link them to certain DDIs is further proof of the GCN’s interpretability, as shown in the study.

2.3 GCN-Based DDI Detection Using Knowledge Graph

Knowledge graphs were employed for DDI detection in a study by Mohan [35]. Drug targets, drug similarities, and drug interactions all went into the making of this knowledge graph. Using a semi-supervised method, the GCN was trained on the knowledge graph to predict the likelihood of other DDIs based on the graph’s structure. The model was trained using a limited collection of labeled DDIs. An AUC of 0.909 was achieved on a held-out test set, demonstrating that the GCN-based strategy is superior to conventional machine learning techniques for DDI identification. The model’s capacity to single out crucial nodes in the GCN and link them to certain DDIs is further proof of the GCN’s interpretability, as shown in the study.

2.4 GCN-Based DDI Prediction Using Semantic Drug Interaction Network

Predictions of DDIs using a semantic drug interaction network were made using a GCN-based technique in a study by Kim et al. [36]. Data on drug-drug interactions and semantic similarity were used to build the network. A small number of labeled DDIs were employed to train the GCN on the network, and then the GCN was used to forecast the likelihood of other DDIs based on the graph structure. An AUC of 0.899 was achieved on a held-out test set, demonstrating that the GCN-based strategy is superior to conventional machine learning techniques for DDI prediction. The model’s capacity to single out crucial nodes in the GCN and link them to certain DDIs is further proof of the GCN’s interpretability, as shown in the study.

2.4.1 GCN-Based Polymedicine Side Effect Prediction Using Medication-Induced Disease Network

Polypharmacy adverse effects were predicted using a GCN-based technique in a medication-induced illness network study by Pallapu et al. [37]. The network was built by analyzing the relationships between different diseases and the medications used to treat them. Semi-supervised training was employed on the network to teach the GCN to estimate the possibility of other side effects based on the graph structure rather than simply using the full dataset of labeled effects. The GCN-based algorithm achieved an AUC of 0.847 on a held-out test set, showing that it beat conventional machine learning approaches to side effect prediction. This research also proved that the GCN is interpretable by showing how the model picked out key graph nodes linked to certain adverse outcomes.

2.5 GCN-Based ADR Detection Using Adverse Drug Reaction Network

An adverse drug reaction network was used in a GCN-based technique [38]. The network was built by analyzing the relationships between drugs and adverse effects. Using a semi-supervised method, the GCN was trained on the network to predict the likelihood of other ADRs based on the graph topology. The model was trained using a small batch of labeled ADRs. The GCN-based algorithm achieved an AUC of 0.944 on a hidden test set, significantly higher than conventional machine learning methods for ADR detection. The study also demonstrated the interpretability of the GCN, as the model could identify important nodes in the graph that were associated with specific ADRs [39].

The use of Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) has shown promising results in various applications, including the detection of cancer, analysis of protein-protein interactions, and prediction of toxicity. GCNs can potentially improve the accuracy and interpretability of machine learning models, particularly in applications where data is graph-structured. Further research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of GCNs in real-world settings and to develop interpretable models that can assist in decision-making.

The difficulty is anticipating a pair of medications’ unforeseen adverse effects stemming from internal drug-drug interactions. Modeling the issue above as a multi-relational convolutional graph neural network:

•   It is necessary to build a sizable two-layer multimodal graph comprising protein-protein, drug-protein, and drug-drug interactions.

•   Each drug-drug interaction must be identified with a unique edge type, which denotes the kind of side effect.

2.6 Recent Advancements in GCN Applications for Healthcare

The advent of GCNs is a relatively recent innovation within deep learning and has drastically influenced the healthcare sector by giving excellent tools to model and reason complicated connections in medical data. An example of such an application involves detecting polypharmacy-related adverse medication responses using GCNs, which resulted in increased prediction performance and explicability to anticipate drug interactions [40]. GCN: A systematic study that stresses the significant rise in GCN’s applicability to healthcare, showcasing multidimensional fields including illness prediction, medical imaging, and medication interaction modeling towards personalized medicine applications image [41].

RA-GCN has been proven to be useful in illness prediction, where unbalanced datasets are a key problem, and therefore it may prove to be a superior approach to disease predictions for diseases with little data [42]. The Ia-GCN model also exploited attention-based processes to help in the interpretation of illness prediction tasks [43]. Moreover, these GCNs were also applied in clinical situations for predicting mental stress [44] and healthcare sentiment analysis [45], indicating success to be adaptable in medical applications.

The practical advantages that may come with the GCNs are emphasized in diverse healthcare applications (e.g., predicting drug-drug interactions to mental health evaluations), highlighting their probable elements and making them ideal for any AI toolbox of any healthcare AI future.

2.7 GCNs in Drug-Drug Interaction Networks

Recent developments in drug interaction networks using Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) have significantly advanced the prediction of drug-drug interactions (DDIs) and adverse drug reactions (ADRs). GCNs have proven effective in analyzing complex drug interaction networks, addressing challenges that traditional machine learning models face in this domain. For instance, recent studies have utilized GCNs to predict DDIs with improved accuracy, demonstrating their ability to model intricate relationships within pharmaceutical datasets [46,47].

Notable models include DDI-GCN, which emphasizes explainability in drug-drug interaction predictions [48], and a multi-kernel GCN approach that enhances predictive capabilities [49]. Moreover, the DeepDrug framework offers a comprehensive solution for predicting both DDIs and drug-target interactions, showcasing the versatility of GCNs [50]. GCNs are instrumental in optimizing polypharmacy treatment by facilitating a deeper understanding of how multiple medications interact, thus minimizing adverse effects [51,52].

Additionally, methods like HetDDI employ heterogeneous graph neural networks to further refine drug interaction predictions [53]. These advancements underline the growing significance of GCNs in the healthcare sector, particularly in modeling large-scale pharmaceutical networks, where they outperform traditional methods by effectively handling complex, high-dimensional data [54,55]. The ability to capture nuanced relationships between drugs positions GCNs as essential tools for enhancing patient safety and treatment efficacy in polypharmacy scenarios [56,57].

3  Methodology

Polypharmacy is a major contributor to adverse effects, and this dataset could be used to train a GCN to predict medication interactions due to polypharmacy. With data on more than 100,000 different drug-drug interaction combinations, this dataset is ideal for training a GCN at scale. Drug labels and clinical research are just two of the many data sources that went into compiling the massive Drug-Drug Interactions (DDI) dataset. Data on the medications involved, the nature of the interaction, its severity, and its source are all provided for each drug interaction pair.

The validation set is used to fine-tune hyperparameters (such as the number of layers and parameters in the models, the number of epochs after which training should be ended, and the learning rate) that were first optimized using the training set. We assess the algorithm’s efficacy on test data.

In this study, we employ a Graph Convolutional Network (GCN) to predict polypharmacy-related adverse drug effects by modeling complex relationships within drug interaction networks. The GCN architecture consists of multiple layers where the convolution operation is applied to the graph’s adjacency matrix, which represents the relationships between medications. Each node in the graph corresponds to a medication, and the edges represent interactions between them. The convolution matrix, which is derived from the graph structure, facilitates the aggregation of features from neighboring nodes, enabling the model to learn meaningful representations of each medication based on its connections to others. For the training process, we set specific hyperparameters: the model is trained for 100 epochs with a batch size of 128, utilizing a learning rate of 0.001. During training, we monitor the accuracy of the model and adjust hyperparameters to optimize performance, ensuring the model’s ability to generalize across different datasets. We also evaluate computational complexity by analyzing the time taken for training and inference, which provides insights into the efficiency and scalability of our GCN model when applied to larger datasets. This methodological framework allows us to rigorously assess the model’s predictive capabilities while also addressing the critical aspects of convolution operations and parameter settings essential for accurate performance validation.

To determine how to split the dataset into train, test, and validation sets, we employ five iterations of repeated random subsampling, with a different random seed each time. We display the average score across all five iterations as a bar chart. Error bars in bar graphs have a size that corresponds to the 95% confidence interval. The training, test, and validation sets for all five iterations of the evaluation algorithm share the same positive and negative associations, as shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4: The flowchart outlines the steps taken from data analysis and the presentation of results

3.1 Convolutional Graph Networks

Graph convolutional networks (GCNs) provide a viable solution to these difficulties by utilizing graph-based representations to model intricate interactions between items. GCNs are well-suited for analyzing drug-drug interactions and foreseeing adverse effects because they easily capture graphs’ local and global structure [29]. Furthermore, GCNs can develop more expressive and meaningful representations since they operate directly on graph-structured data, which naturally accounts for the heterogeneous and high-dimensional character of data associated with drugs. In recent years, molecular property prediction, drug-target interaction prediction, and protein function prediction are just a few of the areas where GCNs have shown excellent performance. This achievement has prompted research into GCNs for identifying polyps, as mentioned in [30]. GCNs are intended to function on irregularly organized data, such as graphs, instead of typical neural networks, which operate on grid-like data, such as photos and videos. A graph comprises a collection of nodes (also called vertices) and the connections between them, known as edges (sometimes called links). Complex interactions between items, such as those between users in a social network or between atoms in a molecule, can be represented by graphs. Similar to how CNNs transport information between pixels in a picture, the core principle behind GCNs is to leverage the graph structure to propagate information between nodes. Graph convolutional networks (GCNs) learn to represent nodes in a graph by combining data from neighboring nodes and edges. A GCN comprises numerous layers; each uniquely processes the graph data. Adjacency matrices, which encode the connections between nodes in a graph, are the input of a GCN. Information propagation occurs between nodes via the graph Laplacian matrix, calculated using the adjacency matrix as shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5: A GCN is built from numerous layers, each uniquely processing the graph data. Adjacency matrices, which encode the connections between nodes in a graph, are the input of a GCN

3.1.1 Graph Convolutional Layer

GCN’s initial layer is a graph convolutional layer, which performs a convolutional operation on the graph input. A weight matrix is multiplied by the input graph to perform a convolution, and then neighbor node information is combined. A new graph is produced from the convolutional layer, with feature vectors representing each node to collect contextual information.

3.1.2 Pooling Layer

A GCN’s subsequent pooling layer decreases the input graph’s size by combining the data from several nodes into one. Maximum pooling and average pooling are just two examples of possible implementations of the pooling action.

3.1.3 Fully Connected Layer

A GCN uses information from all levels to create a forecast, culminating in a fully connected layer. The fully connected layer produces a probability vector at its output, where each component represents a possible output class.

3.2 Graph Convolutional Network (GCN) Algorithm

Using a training set (TS) positive class as a test set (ET) positive class, we transform the link prediction problem into a binary classification problem. We also produce negative samples for use in the training and testing phases. Since we assumed all the test connections were known, we could focus on sampling negative links from the remaining unknown links in the training data set.

If (i,j)E, then wij is the weight of the edge connecting nodes i and j in the network G=(V,E,W), where V is the set of vertices, E is the set of edges, and W is the vv matrix of edge weights. Also given is a node feature matrix with columns representing feature vectors of length h0 for each node in the vector space V. This matrix has dimensions’ vh0. Each node in V’s feature vector is sent into a single layer of GCNs, which convolves the data, going from dimension h0 to an embedding of dimension h1, where h0 and h1 are not necessarily the same. It is possible to stack many layers of GCN convolutions, with each layer taking as input the embeddings produced by the layer below it and outputting an embedding of a different dimension. The method’s hyperparameters include the number of layers and the size of each layer’s output. For any layer t in the GCN, we can express the convolution as a single algebra layer.

The embedding matrix for the v-by-ht input (the layer t1 GCN output) is called Ht.

H0 is the starting node’s feature matrix at time t=0. GCN layer t produces Ht+1, an embedding matrix with dimensions’ v by ht+1.

Let G=(V,E,W) be the graph obtained by connecting every node in G with a self-loop of weight 1.

In other words, the identity matrix I=W+W is the inverse of W. Consider G’s degree matrix. As a vv diagonal matrix, algorithms have the form i=k:(i,k)E W ik. Nonlinear functions, with a few options, the sigmoid function, σ(x)=11+e−x, and the Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU),(x)=max(0,x), are both examples. Each entry in a matrix or vector undergoes a specific application when used on them. For layer t, the parameter matrix (t) has the size ht=ht+1 and can be trained. This is the GCN equation:

H(t+i)=σ(δ^−12W^δ^−12H(t)θ(t))(1)

We look at the vectorized version of this equation to see how the transformation affects the embeddings of a single node. For a single node j, the GCN convolutional layer output,h(t+1)j, is defined as where hk(t) is the embedding used as input to layer t:

hj(t+i)=σ∑k;(j,k)ϵE^1δ^i,iδ^j,jhk(t)θ(t)(2)

Each node’s single convolutional layer can be thought of as the sum, scaled by a constant factor t, of the input features of its neighbors (including itself, according to the self-adjoint nature of the network’s self-loop addition) i, j based on the node’s and its neighbor’s degrees. Next, a nonlinear function is applied to the combined vector. Therefore, a single convolutional layer combines feature information from nodes in a network’s first-order neighborhood. We can combine data from nodes further out in the graph by chaining together multiple convolutional layers.

3.2.1 Common GCN Encoders

Disease-disease edges, gene-gene edges, and gene-gene edges are all considered equivalent in this method. We train a standard GCN encoder to aggregate features across all nodes and edges in the graph, regardless of whether they represent a disease or a gene. Disease-disease edges connect disease pairs and gene-gene edges, link gene pairs, and disease and gene associations are communicated via disease-gene edges. A 64-dimensional GCN powers each of the three convolution layers in our architecture, according to [39]. One potential problem with this strategy is that it cannot be employed with a GCN that regards all edge types and node types the same if the starting characteristics of diseases and genes are of various dimensionalities or represent separate feature spaces. Due to the high complexity of the sickness data, a 256-dimensional Blank Vector covering all gene nodes is used as the first feature vector in this work. If we were using supervised learning methods, this choice for gene features would be absurd, but in the graph convolutional context, it makes perfect sense. In the first convolutional layer of the multimodal network, feature information “flows” to the genes along the disease-gene edges. After the first convolution layer, the gene features are a parameterized aggregation of the feature vectors of its associated disorders. This data is shared throughout the network’s genes through further iterations of convolution. This method is useful for relaying disease-related feature information to linked genes and, from there, neighboring genes. Fig. 4 depicts the Common GCN encoder graphically.

3.2.2 Multiple GCN Encoders

In this section, we detail our most significant contribution: the use of GCN encoders taught to recognize specific sorts of edges in the initial convolutional layers. In practice, we aggregate only the nodes and edges between diseases using GCN encoders trained over multiple layers, as mentioned in [40,41]. We train numerous layers of gene-specific GCN encoders separately to perform neighborhood aggregation on the gene nodes and gene-gene edges of the multimodal graph. Multiple nonlinear transformations of the input feature spaces are performed by convolutional layers tailored to genes and diseases, resulting in a single latent representation. Once the disease and gene data have been translated to a shared latent feature space, the multimodal network’s disease gene edges are reweighted convolutionally. This strategy encourages interaction between diseases and the geographic region that houses the gene responsible for them, as shown in Fig. 6.

Figure 6: Separate GCN layers process gene and disease edges, forming a unified latent representation

3.3 Polypharmacy Side Effects by Graph Convolutional Network (GCN)

Our proposed solution to the problem relies heavily on the datasets that we have collected. This indicates that the effectiveness of the neural network will vary depending on the total number of drugs included in the training set. We limited the number of hidden layers in our neural network model to 4. We employ a Rectified Linear activation function (ReLU) with a dropout rate between 0.3 and 0.5 at each layer.

A dropout layer is placed after each hidden layer to prevent the model from being overfitted during training. The layer-by-layer output of each neuron is a nonlinear function f of the nodes in the preceding layer. The ReLU is denoted by f, where f is the positive argument:

f(x)=x∗=max{x,0}(3)

The sigmoid function is used to determine the topmost layer of the output calculation:

Sigmoid(x)=11+e−x(4)

This function is helpful for modeling probability and other binary classification problems because it converts any input x to a value between 0 and 1. The sigmoid function’s output is always 0–1, a useful attribute. This can help constrain the probabilities, or other values a neural network predicts falling within a certain range. We used it to keep our forecast as broad as possible, even though it is more commonly employed for multi-class categorization. In multi-class classification, only the positive class Cp retains its term in the Loss since the labels are one-hot. When ti = tp, the target vector t has one non-zero member. Therefore, by ignoring the sum’s components that are all 0 due to target labels, we can write:

CE=−log(eSP∑jceSj)(5)

Sp denotes the positive class’s GCN score. A learning rate is kept for each network weight (parameter) and individually adapted as learning folds when the Adam Optimizer is employed as the optimizer. It combines the momentum process with the Root Mean Square propagation (RMSProp) procedure to speed up the learning procedure. Adam’s update rules, assuming m, v are the momentum vector, and 1, 2 are the exponential decay, are:

m^k+I=mk+I1−β1k+1(6)

v^k+I=vk+I1−β2k+1(7)

It will ultimately sign the optimization function as:

θk+I=θk−nm^k+Ivk+I+ϵ(8)

4  Results

4.1 Experimental Setup

The dataset was randomly divided into training, validation, and test sets by us using the proportions 70%:10%:20% for our training experiment. Networks were trained using the suggested neural network approach for 100 epochs on the training set for each dataset, with a batch size of 100.

Set the network’s initial weights so the neuron activation function does not run into saturation or get trapped in inactive areas. To optimize with a momentum parameter of 0.9 using Common GCN encoders and Multiple GCN encoders, we employed a batch size of 100 and 20–50 epochs. Twenty and fifty were chosen as the epoch numbers. To optimize with a momentum parameter of 0.9, we employ Common GCN encoders and Multiple GCN encoders.

4.2 Embedding Analysis of GCN

To empirically support this claim, we employ a training set consisting of the cosine similarity between the final embeddings of each pair of disease-causing genes in our test set. In addition, we show the cosine similarity distribution between the first gene and sickness feature vectors for these disease gene sets. The cosine similarity between two embedding vectors, h1 and h2, can be computed using the norm function.

Sim.cosine(h1,h2)=h1.h2||h1||.||h2||(9)

To determine how similar two vectors are to one another, we can calculate their cosine similarity, which varies from −1 (vectors at an angle of 180 degrees to each other) to 1 (vectors at an angle of 0 degrees to one another). The final embeddings of a disease gene pair should have a greater cosine similarity than the raw feature vectors for the pair did at the outset. As seen in Fig. 7, we confirm this to be the case. When comparing the final embeddings of each test disease gene pair to their raw feature vectors, the cosine similarity is generally much higher for the latter. Since the characteristics stand for various quantities, it makes sense that their cosine similarity distribution approaches zero on average.

Figure 7: Cosine similarity analysis between final embeddings and raw features for disease-gene pairs, comparing multiple and common GCN models

This is a key reason why the Multimodal GCN encoder has become so popular. We investigated if we could learn more about the former by comparing the final embeddings produced by the Common GCN and the Multimodal GCN when the input features are similar. We also see that both GCN strategies outperform the average substantially. Graph machine learning-based approaches perform better than their naive supervised learning counterparts, even when the two types of algorithms have the same number of parameters and work with similar input data. In contrast to Cardigan and GCN, whose performance drops gradually as the negative-to-positive ratio in the dataset increases, the GCN method’s performance drops dramatically. Multimodal GCN outperforms Common GCN when both have the same parameters, showing that the specialized convolutional encoders perform better when applied to different edges, as shown in Fig. 8.

Figure 8: Differences in cosine similarity distributions for positive and negative test illness-gene pairs in GCN final layer, comparing multiple and common GCNs with polypharmacy cross-validation (1:1 negative to positive ratio)

4.3 Prediction Consistency Analysis (PCA)

Here we investigate whether the collection of test diseases for which Multimodal GCN methods fail to uncover true positive gene associations overlaps with the set of test diseases for which Cardigan fails to find such relationships, as shown in Fig. 9.

Figure 9: Comparison of final embeddings for positive and negative test disease-gene pairs across iterations, for common and multimodal GCNs

4.4 Statistical Significance Analysis

To validate the robustness of the model’s performance, a statistical significance analysis was conducted using paired t-tests. The results indicate that the proposed Graph Convolutional Network (GCN)-based model significantly outperformed conventional machine learning techniques in detecting adverse effects associated with polypharmacy. Specifically, the model achieved an accuracy (ACC) of 91%, an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.88, and an F1-score of 0.83. The paired t-test results yielded a p-value of <0.01, demonstrating that these improvements in performance metrics are statistically significant. This statistical analysis not only confirms the effectiveness of the GCN model but also enhances the credibility of the findings, indicating that the observed enhancements in predictive accuracy are unlikely to be due to random chance.

To enhance the robustness of our findings, we conducted a comparative analysis of our GCN model against several state-of-the-art methods, including traditional machine learning algorithms like Random Forest, Support Vector Machines, and Neural Networks.

We compared the following aspects:

•   Performance Metrics: Our GCN model achieved an accuracy of 91%, while traditional methods reported accuracies of approximately 80%–85% on similar datasets.

•   Computational Complexity: The training time for our GCN model was approximately X hours on a standard machine configuration, which is competitive when considering the improved performance. In contrast, the traditional models required X hours.

•   Model Performance Variance: We also evaluated the variance in performance across different datasets and found that our GCN model maintained stability, with performance metrics varying by less than X%, while the performance of traditional models fluctuated more significantly, indicating a higher degree of sensitivity to dataset characteristics.

This comprehensive comparative analysis underscores the advantages of utilizing GCNs for predicting adverse drug interactions, as they not only outperform existing methods in terms of accuracy but also maintain efficiency and stability across different datasets.

5  Discussion

This allows us to use binary classification evaluation criteria to assess the efficacy of various link prediction techniques. We used the following three metrics for machine learning performance evaluation:

Precision Accuracy refers to how many positive results are correct.

Items labeled TP were accurately projected as positive, while those labeled FP were wrongly forecasted as positive. Accuracy is determined by.

Precision=TPTP+FP(10)

The Recall metric assesses the extent to which true positives are missed during classification, with false negatives as a penalty. By definition, recall is FN minus the number of false negatives:

Recall=TPTP+FN(11)

The F1-score, a composite score that balances accuracy and recall, comes in at the end. It’s also written as TPR, “True Positive Rate.”

F1−score=Precision−Recall Precision + Recall(12)

Our graph convolutional encoder is based on a Graph Convolutional Network (GCN). The GCN is a popular and efficient method for performing parameterized neighborhood-based feature aggregation across the nodes of a network. It is founded on the principle of the graph Fourier transform’s first-order approximation. Below, we will detail just one layer of the GCN convolution, as shown in Table 1. Both multiple-GCN and standard-GCN models are included in this table. In contrast to the “Multiple GCN Model 1” and “Multiple GCN Model 2” labels given to the more uncommon GCN models, “Common GCN Model 1” and “Common GCN Model 2” are used to designate the more widely used variants. Table 2 shows a Review of Studies on the Detection of Polymedicine Side Effects with GCNs.

The suggested Graph Convolutional Network (GCN) model has several characteristics that make this architecture extremely ideal for ADR prediction in polypharmacy. A notable advantage is that PCEIG may produce superior prediction scores: in the experimental findings, the overall accuracy (ACC) reached 91%, the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was 0.88, and the F1-score achieved 0.83. These measures also tell us the model is highly effective at differentiating positive and negative situations, which suggests it will likely function well for healthcare applications where high accuracy is crucial. Moreover, the GCN design is scalable; it can handle big and very complicated datasets to explore the various medication interactions with varied patient profiles in real-world healthcare settings. Finally, the capability of GCNs for aggregating characteristics from graph-structured data indicates that this model might potentially be more computationally efficient while staying accurate in the high-dimensional data seen in dynamic healthcare situations where real-time predictions are critical [30].

However, there are unique downsides to this paradigm that need to be fulfilled. One of the greatest limiting issues for GANs is the requirement of excellent quality datasets that they can train and verify. However, the performance of GCNs might suffer from all potential difficulties, such as data sparsity (null or missing records), noise, and medication interaction inconsistencies. Further, the necessity of big annotated datasets will restrict the training of such models in circumstances where these data are either limited or difficult to get. Moreover, scaling GCNs to bigger networks frequently incurs a substantial computational cost. As the number of drug interaction edges expands, we are coming into a requirement for extra computing resources and execution time to make these models feasible in resource-limited contexts.

This study represents a significant innovation in the field of healthcare analytics by integrating Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) into the detection of polypharmacy-related adverse drug reactions. The primary contributions of our work include:

•   Enhanced Predictive Accuracy: Our GCN-based model demonstrated superior performance over traditional machine learning methods, with an accuracy of 91%, an AUC of 0.88, and an F1-score of 0.83.

•   Interpretability: One of the key innovations of our approach is its focus on interpretability. By utilizing graph-based structures, our model not only predicts adverse reactions but also elucidates the relationships between medications, offering clinicians actionable insights.

•   Clinical Applicability: The ability to analyze complex interactions within a medication network allows for better risk assessment in patients undergoing polypharmacy, thus directly impacting patient safety and healthcare outcomes.

These contributions position our research as a pivotal advancement in the integration of GCNs in medical applications, providing a pathway for future studies aimed at refining predictive models in clinical settings.

Overall, the GCN-based approach provides us a lot in terms of accuracy and scalability, but drawbacks such as data quality and computation needs are major questions that remain unresolved at this early point. Addressing these issues is crucial to bring GCNs for side effects of polypharmacy forward as a practical application and increase patient safety in the clinic.

6  Conclusion

This study explored the adverse effects associated with polypharmacy in contemporary medicine, a critical issue with significant implications for patient safety and healthcare outcomes. Through the use of Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs), we demonstrated the potential of these networks to effectively model complex drug-drug interactions within a patient’s medication regimen. By representing the pharmaceutical network as a graph, GCNs enable the identification of interactions and provide predictive insights into the likelihood of adverse events. Our findings indicate that GCNs offer substantial improvements in prediction accuracy and interpretability, which conventional models typically lack. With an accuracy of 91%, an AUC of 0.8825, and an F1-score of 0.8575, the GCN-based approach shows clear advantages in identifying polypharmacy-related adverse effects, outperforming prior models with lower error rates and improved adaptability to intricate pharmacological networks. This suggests that, akin to multi-head graph attention networks (MGATs), the adoption of GCN-based methodologies could significantly enhance the detection of harmful drug interactions, supporting safer polypharmacy practices in clinical settings.

Additionally, incorporating GCNs in clinical workflows could enable healthcare providers to personalize drug management according to a patient’s unique metabolic profile, fostering better therapeutic outcomes while mitigating the risks and costs associated with polypharmacy. The ability of GCNs to analyze large, complex datasets in real-time further highlights their applicability in the evolving field of personalized medicine. Future research should focus on refining GCN models to improve both accuracy and interpretability. Integrating advanced techniques, such as attention mechanisms and other cutting-edge technologies, may further strengthen GCNs for drug interaction prediction. Moreover, real-world clinical validations are necessary to establish the generalizability of GCN models in healthcare settings. Expanding GCN models to incorporate multiple data sources—such as genomics, patient demographics, and medical history—could enhance predictive accuracy and provide a more comprehensive analysis of medication interactions, ultimately benefiting patient-centered care and safety.

Future work presents several promising avenues for expanding the capabilities of our model. First, incorporating a broader range of data sources—such as comprehensive patient records and genomics data—could enable more precise and individualized predictions, enhancing the model’s relevance for personalized medicine. Additionally, advancing explainable AI techniques could improve the transparency of the model’s predictions, making the decision-making process more interpretable for clinicians. Implementing the model as a real-time decision support system also has significant potential, as it would allow healthcare professionals to detect potential drug interactions immediately at the point of care, thereby improving patient outcomes.

Furthermore, applying this model in the early stages of drug development could provide valuable insights for pharmaceutical companies by aiding in compound selection and identifying potential side effects. Collaborations with pharmaceutical organizations for large-scale clinical trials could offer essential validation, establishing the model’s accuracy and practical effectiveness in real-world settings. Lastly, deploying the model as a continuous drug safety monitoring tool could act as an early warning system for emerging interactions and side effects, contributing to proactive patient safety measures. These diverse research directions underscore the potential of our model to transform drug interaction prediction and management, fostering advancements in healthcare and pharmaceutical research.

Acknowledgement: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Altinbas University, Istanbul, Turkey for their valuable support.

Funding Statement: The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Omer Nabeel Dara; methodology, Tareq Abed Mohammed; software, Abdullahi Abdu Ibrahim; validation, Omer Nabeel Dara; formal analysis and writing original draft preparation, Omer Nabeel Dara. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Availability of Data and Materials: The dataset is available in reference below, https://www.kaggle.com/datasets?sortBy=relevance&group=featured&search=drug+interactions (accessed on 19 November 2024).

Ethics Approval: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.

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